I. MATTER & ENERGY

A. MATTER ---all living & non-living things are made of matter; "stuff of the universe"
1. Occupies space & has mass

a. Exists as ______________________________________________

2. Mass is __________________________________________________
Weight is _________________________________________________

B. Energy:the capacity to do work (put mass into motion); less tangible than matter; has no mass & does not take up space.
1. 2 kinds of energy

a.
b.

2. Forms of energy


3. Mass & energy ----- one can be converted into the other


C. Chemical Elements:all matter is made of chemical building units called elements--can't be decomposed into simpler subunits by ordinary chemical means
1. Elements are listed on periodic table ----
2. How many do we know about?
3. How many do humans need?
a. 96% of the body's weight is made up of


b. These 4 +--________________&___________________ make up 99% of the total body wt.
c. 21 others are found in the human body in low concentration & are necessary for normal functioning of body

D. Major elements found in living things -- C. HOPKINS CaFe Mg Cl Na



E. Trace elements in living things �Se Mn B F Al V SiMoNiZn Co Cr Li As CuSn

example: 1 cup of carbon === contains only carbon atoms

1 cup of sodium ===contains only sodium atoms
A. ATOMS --made of
1. protons:particle with a + charge--1200 x the weight of the electron; the proton gives the atom weight; is found in the nucleus of the atom.

2. neutrons:neutral particle found in nucleus with proton; has no charge--will not go to the + or - pole in a field; adds weight to atom; weighs almost as much as the proton

3. Electron particle with negative charge; goes toward the proton in a field; gives the chemical its characteristics; determines how & with what the atom will combine

ALL ATOMS IN UNIVERSE ARE MADE OF THESE PARTICLES

ATOMS OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS CONTAIN DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF PROTONS.

THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN AN ELEMENT === ATOMIC NUMBER
            ____________ + _____________            === ATOMIC WEIGHT
B. Structure of atoms:
1. protons & neutrons in nucleus
2. electrons orbit --___ in first orbit; 2nd orbit can have ____; 3rd orbit can have ____ (or up to18) all orbits closer in have to be filled before one electron can be in the outer orbit--inner orbits fill first; atoms will add or give up electrons until they have a stable outer ring. Draw a simple atom.





C. ISOTOPES--different forms of the same atom (have different weights)-look alike; act alike; have different weights

1. simplest atom--hydrogen atom == H made of one proton & one electron; one neg. charge is circling around at the speed of light, so it is like a cloud around the proton
NOTE: the normal atom will have the same number of protons & electrons
a. thus, the H atom will have no charge --- it will go straight through an electrical field
b. change the H atom by adding another proton == helium--chemically different from H because of the number of protons in nucleus
2. change the H atom ( 1 proton, 1 electron) by adding 1 neutron == deuterium---it is like H because it has the same number of protons as H--no chemical test will distinguish between these two--they will react the same, but Deuterium will weigh more because NEUTRONS weigh almost as much as protons

3. add one more neutron == tridium --tends to disentegrate

THESE THREE ARE ISOTOPES : draw these




Some isotopes of an element are unstable; will decompose & release energy ===RADIOACTIVE --many of these can be used for diagnostic tests--ex. radioactive iodine

D. Bonding of atoms (analogy)
1. ______________________________
a. if the atom gives up an electron, the charge on the atom will be __; since the electron (-) must be given to an atom that needs an electron, the charge on the accepting atom will become _____.

b. these + & - charged atoms are called ___________

c. CATION === __________ CHARGED ATOM

d. ANION ==== __________ CHARGED ATOM

e. if an atom gives away 3 electrons, it will have a _______ charge; the atom accepting the 3 electrons will have a ____________charge

f. because the atoms have opposite charges they attract each other & bond

g. THIS TYPE OF BONDING IS CALLED _________________---IONS HELD TOGETHER BY OPPOSITES ATTRACTING ; THE ATOMS HELD TOGETHER FORM MOLECULES.

h. IONIC BONDS ARE _______ (FORMED BY THE TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS) SO THE ATOMS WILL SEPARATE EASILY. This is important because water in our body is polar (has a + charge on one end of the molecule and a - charge on the other end). When the molecule formed by ionic bonding is placed in water, these ionic bonds will separate & other molecules can be formed.

example: NaCl + H2O === NaCl will separate in water to form ions (charged atoms); these ions will conduct nerve impulses or combine with other ions to form different chemicals.

ELECTROLYTE--


2. COVALENT BONDS --formed by the __________________________________________-- either atom is stable by itself, so the atoms will share electrons --they can loan each other electrons for short micro-seconds--these electrons travel so fast that the effect is to have 2 nuclei, each with 8 electrons at least part of the time. Therefore, these molecules are stable. Most molecules in the body are formed by__________________________________________ fats, proteins, carbohydrates
a. Draw a single, double & triple covalently bonded molecule.





b. What does the line between the two atoms represent in the following: H - H; O = O ?




3. Hydrogen bonds--____________________; these bonds do not bind atoms into molecules but, instead, form bridges ; these bridges give strength & stability to the molecule.
The H bond is a bond in which a + part of a hydrogen atom within a molecule is attracted to the - parts of a N or O atoms within the same molecule or between molecules. Large molecules may contain 100's of H bonds.
Draw a protein molecule with H bonds.




III. CHEMICAL REACTIONS making or breaking of bonds between atoms
A. METABOLISM ===all the chemical reactions that occur in cells made of :

anabolism --simple molecules ----> structures

catabolism --nutrients (large molecules) -----> simple molecules + energy (ATP) all of these reactions in cells are controlled by enzymes

B. TYPES OF REACTIONS:
1. Synthesis reactions: anabolism----


2. Decomposition reactions: catabolism


3. Exchange reactions


4. Reversible reactions



IV. CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS--LIFE PROCESSES
A. TWO CLASSES OF COMPOUNDS
1. Inorganic --usually lack carbon; small molecules; H₂O, O₂, CO₂, salts, acids & bases


2. Organic compounds--always contain C & H; held together by covalent bonds carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, & ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

B. INORGANIC SUBSTANCES
1. Acids--dissociate into one or more hydrogen ions H+ & one or more anions ( neg. ions) acids are proton donors


2. Bases--dissociates into one or more hydroxide ion ( OH- ) and one or moe cations (+ ions) bases are protons acceptors.

3. Salts --when dissolved in H2O, dissociates into cations & anions (but not H+ or OH- ) acids & bases react with one another to form salts.


Acid-Base Balance: pH�a symbol of the measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) in solution.


Buffer systems--a buffers converts strong acids or bases (ionize easily) into weak acids or bases (do not ionize easily).


ACIDOCIS & ALKALOSIS P. 46

4. H₂O


5. O₂


6. CO_{2 & NO}


7. Inorganic salts

A. CARBOHYDRATES
1. Contain ----- C, H, O ---for every C atom, there is the equivalent of 1 water --H O molecule

2. Sugars end in ose glucose, sucrose, fructose

3. 5-C sugars == pentoses, 6 - C sugars == hexoses (ring structures are building blocks of carbohydrates)

4. Ribose --a sugar used to make RNA --one of the largest mlecules
5. Deoxyribose == a sugar in DNA --deoxyribose is missing an O DNA (genetic material)--the largest molecule
6. TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
a. Monosaccharide
1. Glucose --fuel for the body C H O
2. Galactose
3. Fructose (in fruit)
b. Disaccharide
1. Maltose == glucose + glucose
2. Sucrose == glucose + fructose == table sugar, candy
3. lactose === milk sugar == glucose + galactose
c. Polysaccharides
1. Starch -- large molecule made by plants; the way plants store E-- break up starch -- get glucose
2. glycogen--- storage form of glucose --stored in liver, muscle, brain
d. Cellulose -- fiber in our diets; main substance in trees or grass; forms cell walls in plants -- in fresh fruits & veggies
e. chitin -- in insect shells
B. FATS; . LIPIDS-- C, H, O ( S, P, Fe) not soluble in water
1. Function --used for building structures & as a stored form of energy
--a medium for mixing chemicals that are not water soluble
--control body functions (steroids) note that fats & lipids are not mixable with water; therefore, they are WATERPROOF. Things that will not dissolve in water will dissolve in fat.
2. Fats -- solid at room temp == lard, fat on steak
3. Lipids -- liquid at room temp == oils
4. all based on units called -- fatty acids -- + glycerol




5. Types of fats & lipids

a. True fats
add 1, 2 or 3 fatty acids bound to glycerol ( a 3 C sugar)